The Role of a Strategic Leader in an Organization Essay Example for Free

The Role of a Strategic Leader in an Organization Essay Role of Indian Media in the New Age The following is the speech given by Shri Kapil Sibal, Minister of HRD and C IT, on the topic: Role of Indian Media in the New Ag, presiding as the Chief Guest for the Press Club Awards for Excellence in Journalism , on 5th May, 2012 at The NSCI, Worli, Mumbai. I am privileged to be here with you on a day the media celebrates its exceptional performers. I congratulate all those who have received awards and wish them continued success in their profession. The media has emerged as a pillar of the modern State. nbsp; The foundation of a modern democratic State lies in its ability to secure fundamental rights promised to its people, to deliver Justice and lead its people to economic and social progress. Democracy is defined by freedom of speech and expression. Media is an embodiment of these rights that define democracy. If we look back into history, the emergence of the modern nation-state where the sovereignty vested in its people is closely related to the spread of the printing press. Guttenberg ¤Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ws Bible (the first printed book) was a precursor to the spread of emocracy and republican thought across the world. Rousseau was mild mannered, but his thoughts disseminated by the newspapers in the coffee houses of Paris resulted in the French Revolution. Liberty, Equality and Fraternity as the slogan for the Revolution owes much to the media of the day. The Indian media has been truly a pillar of the Indian State. Eternal vigilance is the price of freedom. The Indian media has indeed been vigilant and persuasive in protection of freedoms and awakening thought. If we have preserved our democracy in the midst of periodic lapses into ictatorships in our neighbourhood, the credit should go to our founding fathers who created robust institutions and to the media who kept a vigilant watch at preserving these institutions. However, the nature of media has also been changing over the last two decades. The emergence of the electronic media in India over two decades ago since the first war to be witnessed live by millions in the cosy comforts of their homes, brought the power of imagery to the forefront. The growing dominance of imagery over substance in an era where time is of the essence and competition is ntense, has brought about the need for stoking fires, beaming controversies and heated debates in the media. The divergence of approach between the print and the electronic media has been amply demonstrated in the events of the last year. Today ¤ es media does not provide much space for settling differences, it prefers to dog the protagonists forever reminding them of the past. There is a problem with this approach. We do not sufficiently celebrate our achievements, we do not appreciate the progress that we make. The spread of negative sentiment leads to despondency and inaction. Infact, today ¤Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ws headline in a prominent newspaper speaks of the fear that stalks the corridors of bureaucracy. Despite the exhortation of the Prime Minister, the civil services today is afraid of action, for any action can be questioned. Faith and trust in all institutions are being eroded. Rampant mistrust, I believe, has slowed governance and if not corrected, can imperil the foundations of democracy. We have much to correct, but it is necessary for room for correction to be available. When there is a dispute in a family, the members retire to a place of seclusion to ettle eir tn ditterences. Today, there is no such place available due to the omnipotence of media. Competition spurs innovation, but unhealthy competition can lead to pandering. The rush for eyeballs in a crush of problems leads to extremes being aired rather than the moderate being heard. In such a situation, the responsibility of the media to the larger society gets diluted.    At the same time, I would for one strongly oppose attempts to impose responsibility through regulatory action. It is for the media to ponder and find solutions for itself. If the media fails to o so, Just as we are witnessing a clamour for Judicial accountability because the judiciary has not succeeded in inculcating responsibility within itself, a similar clamour for media accountability would grow. Another trend that has emerged in the recent years is the growth of the social media riding in the ICT revolution. Social interactions have exploded as never before, aided by the connecting power of the internet. The ability of thoughts to converge and congregate have multiplied manifold.

Leed Versus Breeam Analysis Construction Essay

Leed Versus Breeam Analysis Construction Essay Displaying a green certificate is becoming more and more important for organisations as the communities they operate in are becoming more and more sustainably aware. Environmental assessment of buildings is nothing new, BREEAM was the first national scheme introduced in 1990 but has since expanded, going from a small 19-page BRE report with 27 credits available, to a substantial 350-page technical guide with 105 credits BREEAM has conquered the UK Market for almost 20 years. But now has stiff competition from the US Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). In 1998 the US Green Building Council launched its Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). BREEAM and LEED are now the main methods currently competing for business in the UK. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Is an internationally recognized green building certification system,  providing third-party verification that a building or community was designed and built using strategies aimed at improving performance across all the metrics that matter most: energy savings, water efficiency, CO2 emissions reduction, improved indoor environmental quality, and stewardship of resources and sensitivity to their impacts (USGBC, 2008). Developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), LEED provides building owners and operators a concise framework for identifying and implementing practical and measurable green building design, construction, operations and maintenance solutions. It was recently introduced into the UK as a solution to some of the downfalls of current rating systems. In the UK, interest in LEED is growing. The Green Building Certification Institutes website records 66 LEED Accredited Professionals in the UK. This is the fifth highest national total behind the US, Canada, UAE and China (BSRIA, 2009). LEED is flexible enough to apply to all building types especially commercial. It works throughout the building lifecycle first assessment is completed at the design and construction stage then the second is the operations and maintenance stage, then finally any tenant fit out, and significant retrofit. However, the LEED design can miss many green opportunities that fall outside the stringent LEED criteria. One problem with the LEED method of sustainable design is that it can foster an all-or-nothing attitude toward this pursuit. LEED audits have become a common activity during schematic design. All too often, however, green design is abandoned entirely once this audit shows a project falling short of the number of points required for LEED certification (Environmental Outlook, 2002). Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM Is the foremost method of assessing the environmental performance of new and existing buildings both in the UK and worldwide. It sets the standard for best practice in sustainable development and covers virtually all aspects of the design. (BREEAM, 2002) Achieving a BREEAM rating is ever more becoming a requirement of Funding Bodies and Planning Authorities. It also demonstrates a commitment to socially responsible development and creating sustainable and healthy environments in which current and future generations are to live and work. (BREEAM, 2002) Assessments are carried out at two stages; Firstly, during the Design Stage and then at Post Construction Review Stage. Following the Post Construction Stage Assessment, the Client is provided with a BREEAM Certificate directly by the BRE. BREEAM Ratings are awarded in five categories: pass, good, very good, excellent and outstanding. The BREEAM process will help to encourage better standards with commercial developments, but it should be done in a way that clearly acknowledges the complete development cycle for different options rather than the factory gate figure alone. Future strategies for BREEAM will need to see a general alignment with government carbon reduction and sustainability plans. BREEAM would then be more integrated into legislation so that new buildings are built with sustainability embedded throughout the complete process. These two methods lack similarities when it comes to the process of qualifications. BREEAM has trained assessors who assess the evidence against the credit criteria and report it to the BRE, who validate the assessment and issue the certificate. While LEED does not require training, there is a credit available if an accredited professional (AP) is used. (James Parker 2009) Table The role of the AP is to help gather the evidence and advise the client. The evidence is then submitted to the USGBC which does the assessment and issues the certificate. Both schemes share common components see Table 1. Early involvement of the assessor or AP at the design stage is beneficial to the project and the final rating. Both schemes drive the market to improve building design. The judging criteria also keep pace with legislative developments and current best practice. James Parker author of BREEAM vs LEED (2009) has issued findings on buildings which have achieved both a BREEAM and a LEED rating his findings were as follows. The US-GBC also lists ten UK buildings as being registered for one of the LEED schemes. At the time of writing, the list shows that only one UK building the Herman Miller HQ in Cheltenham as having gained a LEED rating. This building also had a BREEAM assessment carried out under the offices 2006 scheme, under which it was awarded an excellent rating. Another building known to have both a BREEAM and a LEED rating is the Van de Kamp Bakery, at Los Angeles City College. The bakery gained a certified LEED rating and a Good BREEAM 2005 rating (James Parker, 2009). James Parkers findings provide the opinion that BREEAM issues a higher rating for the same building in both the US and the UK. However it would be more precise to compare LEED with BREEAM 2008, as the latter now has a compulsory post-construction review, this has been an item on the objective list for LEED for a while. Previous BREEAM schemes only assessed buildings at a design stage. Eszter Gulacsy, a sustainability consultant from MTT/Sustain has stated that whilst BREEAM is more educational and more rigorous LEED is far simpler in its approach, BREEAM is more relevant in the UK as it uses UK policies, however LEED can sit alongside as part of a global corporate policy, she says. Gulacsy also believes that the driver for LEED in the UK is often the clients global corporate policy or the needs for global tenants. This makes a lot of sense, companies that are multi-national would find it much easier if their sustainable commitments and rating procedure were dealt with in the same way but before the introduction on LEED into the UK, multi-national companies had to use BREEAM in the UK and perhaps LEED elsewhere. For example Germany-based Siemens now uses LEED for all its new buildings worldwide, several of these are now located in Europe. BREEAMs director, Martin Townsend states that We have not been shy about selling BREEAM across the globe. BREEAM International grew out of the BREEAM Bespoke scheme. BREEAM Europe and BREEAM Gulf are similar money-earners. But going global brings BREEAM head-to-head with its rival LEED. Ironically, we are seeking ways of collaborative working with the US LEED system. If an American bank wants to build over here, it understands about LEED and wants the building built to that standard. Thats fine, but it might not translate that well into the UK climatic environment, our building legislation or the way that building operates. Providing a client with dual certification has to be a good way of sharing that information. (Building Design, 2009) But Gulacsy warns Europe thinks that LEED is an easy win, but it isnt if the paperwork and evidence is not in place. There is a danger of complacency, So would a merging of the two competing systems be seen as desirable? Clearly, a one-size-fits-all assessment method would be complicated to implement on a global basis as problems that face one country or region might not be issues in others therefore these need to be ranked accordingly for example water efficiency is a major issue in Dubai and Australia, but not in England or Ireland. LEED is dominated by the American ASHRAE standards (an international organization that establishes standards for the uniform testing and rating of heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and refrigeration equipment) (EPA, 2004). BREEAM takes its cue from European and UK legislation. The regional versions of both schemes flow from those antecedents. BREEAM Gulf has been adapted for the local market. Gone are the Good, Very Good, and Excellent ratings, and in comes star ratings. The weightings are changed so that water is the key issue, rather than energy as in the standard UK schemes. In addition to the CIBSE guidance being the measure for certain credits, ASHRAE and other standards are also now referenced in BREEAM Gulf. BREEAM has long been able to adapt to local contexts. With BREEAM Bespoke, for example, the assessor can work with BRE to develop assessment criteria specially tailored to a building where it doesnt fit neatly into one of the existing schemes. Stephen Kennett, (2008) . It is stated that LEED has not been shaped with this high level of flexibility and it is not run this way. LEED is fixed to the ASHRAE standards and the US way of thinking (for example, credits are awarded for having enough car parking spaces, rather than minimising them as in BREEAM). There are also differences in the way LEED calculates credits. They are generally linked to the US Dollar, which means that if the exchange rate is unfavourable, then the buildings rating could suffer (James Parker, 2009). There is a lot of hype about the battle between BREEAM and LEED in the UK, but this seems to be unfounded. Both seem happy to co-exist and each has their niche areas or countries. They are even borrowing each others ideas as they grow. BREEAM will probably always come out on top in the UK, simply because it is imbedded in the system. Government departments require BREEAM ratings of all their buildings; most local authorities require BREEAM as part of planning approval for developments over a certain size. Once projects are underway that aim to be zero carbon, the likes of BREEAM or LEED may have developed to become the global default methods of assessment. (James Parker 2009)

Sir Gawain Essay -- essays research papers

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Gawain, a knight of the famed King Arthur, is depicted as the most noble of knights in the poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Nonetheless, he is not without fault or punishment, and is certainly susceptible to conflict. Gawain, bound to chivalry, is torn between his knightly edicts, his courtly obligations, and his mortal thoughts of self-preservation. This conflict is most evident in his failure of the tests presented to him. With devious tests of temptation and courage, Morgan le Fay is able to create a mockery of Gawain’s courtly and knightly ideals. Through the knight Gawain, the poem is able to reveal that even knights are human too with less than romantic traits. In order to satirize Gawain's courtly ways, the poet must first establish the presence of perfect chivalric code in Gawain, only to later mock that sense of perfection with failure. This establishment of chivalric code is created in part through the expression used to describe Gawain throughout the poem. He is described as "noble" and "goodly" on more than one occasion, giving the reader a positive understanding of the poem's hero (405, 685). This courtly view of Gawain is further expresses by his noble acceptance of the Green Knight's beheading game, in order to "release the king outright" from his responsibility (365). Gawain was the first to accept the Green Knight's terms. His acceptance of the beheading game before any other person brings t...

The U.S. Patriot Act Essay -- essays research papers

The US Patriot Act   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Privacy can be considered one of the most valued rights of a civilized society. The founders of the constitution had this in mind when they developed search and seizure laws to protect the privacy of the citizens from the British soldiers. The invasion of privacy has been a much discussed and debated topic among both politicians and private citizens alike, and the question many are asking is, â€Å"How much freedom do we give up for our sense of security?†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The US Patriot address issues of criminal activities in relation to acts of terror. While its intentions are well meant the controversy lies more in the public perception rather than in what the act itself states. When a person hears the statement, â€Å"law enforcement agencies will have the right to place surveillance, or search anyone’s house on a suspicion alone, they fail to look farther into the words and see that it has to go through a panel of 11 judges who must determine that the need is valid and will serve the purposes designated without overstepping a citizens rights if proven innocent (Bill Summary, 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Title II, Section 206 of the Patriot Act addresses â€Å"roving surveillance,† which allows law enforcement agencies access to the suspects person, and basically states that any communication such as email, phone, etc., my be monitored if subject is suspected or actively affiliated with known terrorist groups or ...

Structure in Oedipus Rex Essay -- Oedipus the King Oedipus Rex

Structure in Oedipus Rex  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   M. H. Abrams says that â€Å"almost all literary theorists since Aristotle have emphasized the importance of structure, conceived in diverse ways, in analyzing a work of literature† (300). The matter of the structure of Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex is a subject of varying interpretation among literary critics, as this essay will reveal.    In â€Å"A Great Translator’s Reflections on Oedipus the King,† Gilbert Murray, professor at Oxford University in England, cites structure as one of the reasons why he chose Oedipus Rex as a work of translation:    On the whole, I can only say that the work of translation has made me feel even more strongly than before the extraordinary grip and reality of the dialogue, the deftness of the construction, and . . . the unbroken crescendo of tragedy from the opening to the close (105). . . . But Sophocles worked by blurring his structural outlines just as he blurs the ends of his verses. In him the traditional divisions are all made less distinct, all worked over the direction of greater naturalness. . . .This was a very great gain. . . .(107)    Murray’s appreciation of the â€Å"crescendo of tragedy† in Oedipus Rex is echoed in the sentiments of another critic: In Oedipus Tyrannus: Tragic Heroism and the Limits of Knowledge, Charles Segal says that the protagonist fares well in the first series of tests, but declines towards his catastrophe in the second series:    The first three tests are, respectively, Oedipus’ meetings with Creon, Teiresias, and then Creon again. In each case he is pursuing the killer as someone whom he assumes is other than himself. . . . The second series begins with Jocasta and continues with the Corinthian messeng... ...Terms, 7th ed. New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1999.    Murray, Gilbert. â€Å"A Great Translator’s Reflections on Oedipus the King.† In Readings on Sophocles, edited by Don Nardo. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, 1997.    Owen, E. T.   â€Å"Drama in Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannus.† In Twentieth Century Interpretations of Oedipus Rex, edited by Michael J. O’Brien. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968.    Segal, Charles. Oedipus Tyrannus: Tragic Heroism and the Limits of Knowledge. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1993.    Sophocles. Oedipus Rex. Transl. by F. Storr. no pag. http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/browse-mixed new?tag=public&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&part=0&id=SopOedi    Van Nortwick, Thomas.   Oedipus: The Meaning of a Masculine Life. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998.

Biocon

Case: BIOCON LTD. Building a biotech powerhouse Reasons for success of Biocon Ltd. in the past: Sequential growth strategy: Biocon added businesses like enzymes, biopharmaceuticals, research services and drug development that were interlinked. Consolidation of core skills: Biocon had consolidated its core skills in enzymes (known to be the building blocks of biotech), established a footprint in biopharmaceuticals (which helped generate regular cash flow) and partnered with global firms (serving as launching pads for drug development). Biocon's Integrated Business Model: Biocon, along with its subsidiaries – Syngene and Clinigene, handles the entire lifecycle of a drug; right from discovery to commercialization (it has least expertise in commercialization). o Discovery Syngene Molecular Biology Synthetic Chemistry Biocon Microbial Fermentation Biodiversity Bioprocessing o Development Clinigene Clinical Research Clinical Development Clinical Trials o Commercialization Biocon Generics, main contributor to revenue: Bulk of their revenues came from generics. A generic drug typically cost 20 per cent to 80 per cent less because the product was not burdened with legacy expenses of research, development, clinical trials and marketing. Patent of Plafactor: Biocon secured a U. S. patent for a reactor it developed, known as plafactor. The patent gave the company exclusive global rights to use and license the technology for the manufacture of drugs involving genetically engineered microorganisms in a solid-state fermenter. Diversified and Specialized: From the company’s origins making enzymes for the breweries industry, Biocon had expanded and diversified into related fields during the next two decades. Biocon specialized in four broad areas: enzymes, biopharmaceuticals, custom research and clinical research. Fermentation offered competitive advantage: The importance of enzymes for Biocon lay in the fact that the business was a springboard for one of the company’s competitive advantages. Fermentation was a core skill that offered Biocon a leverage in stage 3 of the value chain of biopharmaceuticals. The company’s fermenting capacity gave it both the ability to scale up an industrial process and the platform on which to pursue discovery-led growth. Threats to sustaining this performance in future: More competitive market: Every biotech player – big and small, was seeking a foothold in generics. The biopharmaceuticals space, in which Biocon had built a niche, was thus becoming more crowded and competitive day by day. Changing Regulatory Environment: The regulatory environment that had made generics such an attractive sector in India was changing. The government of India had introduced a full-fledged patents regime. In the past, the Indian government had granted patents for the process of manufacturing a drug, not for the drug itself. Patent protection of Statins: Biopharmaceuticals represented 80 per cent of Biocon’s turnover, with the production of APIs for statins accounting for 45 per cent of revenue. Statins would lose patent protection in 2008 in the United States. As a result, the dollar value of the global market for statins would shrink from $22 billion to $3 billion. There were also pricing pressures from low-cost Chinese competitors. Commercialization: Relative to the company’s other activities; Biocon had the least expertise in this final stage of drug discovery and development. Investments were being made in creating the manufacturing capacity for industrial scale-up. Commercialization would also require compliance with manufacturing standards, deployment of a sales force and development of expertise in marketing and promotions aimed at physicians and end-customers. Greater demand on Biocon’s financial resources: Biocon had operated for a long time in the realm of commodities, characterized by business-to-business sales. Making the transition to drug discovery and development would involve developing competence in several key areas: building a portfolio of promising drug candidates to move through the development pipeline, project management skills to facilitate this process, regulatory compliance, manufacturing and marketing. The need to develop capabilities in these areas would place greater demand on Biocon’s financial resources.

Learning Diversity Essay

After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 1. De? ne cultural diversity; 2. Describe the role of culture in shaping similarities and di? erences among individuals; 3. Recognise race and ethnicity as an element of micro cultural diversity; 4. Explain the educational implications of di? erences in students’ learning style; 5. Distinguish types of cognitive style; 6. Relategender di? erences and socio-economic status to individual di? erences issues; and 7. Describe teacher’s strategies in embracing diversity. Individual Differences 7 171i. CHAPTER 7 l INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES. 171 INTRODUCTION As teachers, we must be aware of about students’individual differences such as differences in culture, ethnicity, intelligent, languages, learning styles, etc. It is because it may enhance students’understanding or limit their opportunity to learn from the school environment. These factors should be taken into consideration when we plan teaching and learning process in the classroom. We begin by discussing the de? nition of cultural diversity and other factors that contribute to students’diversity. Next, we examine the differences of learning styles and cognitive  styles among students. This is followed by the explanation of gender differences that in? uence the students’ performance. In the ? nal section of this chapter, we will discuss how teachers can cope with the individual differences effectively in the teaching and learning process. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES l CHAPTER 7 172 â€Å"†¦Characteristics of an individual’s society, or of some subgroups within this society. It includes values, beliefs, notions about acceptable and unacceptable behaviour, and other socially constructed ideas that members of the culture are taught are â€Å"true†. † (1994 in Tan 3003). â€Å"†¦Those human characteristics that have both the potential to either enrich or limit a student’s capacity to learn from the school environment. † Henson & Eller (1999, p121) â€Å" Individual differences are the variations we observe among members of any group in a particular characteristic, such as temperament, energy level, friendship patterns and parent-child attachment. † Borich & Tombari (1997, p29) 7. 1 CULTURAL DIVERSITY 7. 1. 1 De? nition of Cultural Diversity According to Garcia, Culture refers to: Henson & Eller (1999, p121) posit that the term diversity mean: Whereas Borich & Tombari (1997. p29) posit that: 173i. CHAPTER 7 l INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 173 â€Å"Group membership can include racial identi? cation, but regardless of race, it can vary further in term of assumptions, values, language, religion, behaviour, and symbols. † (O’conor, 1988 in Tan 2003). Figure 7. 1: Various races in Malaysia. In Malaysia we have different races such as the Malays, Chinese, Indians and others as illustrated in Figure 7. 1. Each of the races has their own culture. Culture is a broad and encopassing concept. Even though we equate culture with race or ethnic identity, the truth is that within racial or ethnic groups there can  be cultural variations. In short, culture governs how we think and feel, how we behave and how we live, and it is born largely of socialization. We often recognize national culture such as Malays, Chinese, Indians and others. We share Malaysian citizenship. So, differences in culture pertaining to Malaysia also mean differences in ethnicity and race. 7. 1. 2 The Role of Culture in Shaping Similarities and Di? erences Among Individuals Culture has impact on our student’s socialization. Some elements of culture including religion, foods, holidays and celebrations, dress, history and traditions, and art and  music. Cultural diversity also can manifest in our views of the life cycle, decorum and discipline, health and hygiene (Example: Explanations of illness and death), values, work and play, and time and space. All could be elements of a shared national culture or of additional family cultures. Each element shapes our students through socialization within their families, later through teacher, peers and environment. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES l CHAPTER 7 174 We need to keep in mind that our students’ membership in cultural groups signi? cantly in? uences their lives both inside and outside of school. Therefore, we have to consider cultural diversities because honouring cultural diversities enhances classroom teaching and learning. As teachers, we have to understand these cultural diversities and try to accommodate to these differences. We have to honour other people’s beliefs and values because they have their rationale and that contributes to a harmonious society and peaceful nation. These have to start in school where the students are aware of their differences and teacher instil within them the espirit de core (spirit to live together peacefully), tolerance towards others, empathy and pro social behaviour. 175i. CHAPTER 7 l INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 175 To answer that question, Tan (2003), recognizes three ways in addressing cultural differences as illustrated in Figure 7. 2: Now let us examine all these approaches. (a) Assimilation Theory According to the assimilation theory, all students must conform to the rules of the Anglo- American group culture, regardless of their family culture or the rules of other groups to which they belong. â€Å"Anglo† culture is superior to all others, differences are threatening and rejected. Figure 7. 2: Three ways in addressing cultural differences INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES l CHAPTER 7. 176 (b) Amalgamation Theory According to Davidson & Phelan: Cultural differences are ignored. Through the years, many of us have been comforted by the melting pot view of our society’s institutions. But, it too has encouraged the loss of individual identity. (c) Cultural Pluralism According to Davidson & Phelan: Diversity is not feared or criticized or ignored. It is valued, even celebrated. An effective teacher holds this view of diversity and incorporates beliefs about multicultural education. Multicultural education is education in which a range of cultural perspectives is presented to students. â€Å"The amalgamation theory is the â€Å"melting pot† approach in which elements of individual cultures are blended to become a â€Å"new†, synthesized American culture. † (Davidson & Phelan, 1993) â€Å" In â€Å"cultural pluralism†, we are encouraged to take multicultural view, in which we attempt to address the elements of both shared national culture and individual and/or family culture together. † (Davidson & Phelan, 1993) 1. What is cultural diversity? Give few examples of cultural diversity in your answer. 2. Think of ways in which teacher can accommodate to the cultural diversity among students. 177i. CHAPTER 7 l INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES. 177 7. 2 RACES AND ETHINICITY DIVERSITY Race and ethnicity are factors contribute to students’diversity. Through race and ethnicity, we will be able to trace the students’root and cultural make up. Through this awareness then we can be fair in our treatment to all students in the classroom. As Ladson-Billings (1994) notes: â€Å"The notion of equity as sameness only makes sense when all students are exactly the same†. Ladson-Billings (1994) In reality we are different in race, ethnicity, culture and ways of life. Therefore we should take advantage of these differences by learning other languages, about food and dances. Students would respect teachers who know about their students’languages other than their own because it enhances their knowledge about the students and make their communiaction with the students easier. In Malaysia, we have di? erent race that are Malays, Chinese, Indians, Eurasian and others. Within the races, we have sub-groups or ethnicity. Examples of the sub-groups or ethnicity are listed in table 7. 1. Table 7. 1: Races and it sub-groups or ethnicity in Malaysia. Race Malays Chinese Sub-groups or ethnicity ? †¢? Javanese? Malays? †¢? Bugis? Malays †¢? Kelantanese Malays †¢? Johorean? Malays †¢? Malaccan? Malays? etc. Chinese come from many parts of China which contribute to ethnic di? erences such as: ? †¢? Hokkien ? †¢? Cantonese ? †¢? Hailam? and? etc. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES l CHAPTER 7 178 7. 3 LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY Linguistic diversity is one of the elements that contributes to student’s diversity. Your class will have language diversity, and you will have to realize that you need to be sensitive to this linguistic diversity and adjust accordingly. In Malaysia, we are lucky because the medium of instruction is in Malay or Bahasa Melayu for all subjects except for English. Furthermore, English is regarded as the second language andball students must pass the subject at the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia level or the form 5 national exam. It moulds young generations of Malaysia to at least mastering three languages, namely Bahasa Melayu, the English language, and their mother tongue. With this capacity, it enhances the Malaysians to understand each other and to live harmoniously. Tan (2003) suggested two ways to teachers in addressing language diversity as shown in Figure 7. 3, which are Facilitating English, and Immersion and Transitional Methods. Indians ? †¢? Tamil? Nadu ? †¢? Hindustani ? †¢? Benggali ? †¢? Pakistani ? †¢? Bangla? (Bangladesh)? ? †¢? Bangla? (Sri? Lanka)? and? etc.? These races and ethnicities also contribute to language differences. 1. What are race and ethnicity diversity? Give few examples of race and ethnicity in Malaysia. 2. Can you understand other race or ethnic language? List out the advantages for teachers if they know their student languages. Figure 7. 3: Two suggested ways in addressing language diversity by Tan(2003) 179i. CHAPTER 7 l INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 179 Let us examine those approaches. (a) Facilitating English Enhancing the mastering of the English language among students can help overcome the problem of communication with others in the school and outside the school. Teaching English to all students is regarded as a tool for cultural understanding and communication among students. We can emphasize comprehension in our classroom. If you can understand the student and the student can understand you, then achievement can continue. Increased student achievement should be our overall instructional goal, regardless of linguistic diversity issues. (b) â€Å"Immersion† and Transitional Method Traditionally, we believed â€Å"immersion† approach was the best way to move children to standard language usage. In this approach, from the beginning till the end, the instructor uses only the language to be learned. It becomes, then, a â€Å"sink or swim† proposition. †¢ Some children swim, they thrive under these conditions; they learn the language with few problems. †¢ Other students, however, sink; they do not learn the language and suffer inside and outside of class. Similarly, linguistically diverse students can sink or swim in language learning. Conversely, teacher may use transitional or balance bilingual strategies for adding standard language as a shared communicative tool are being examined. These approaches start with the language the student brings into the classroom and build on family and cultural language to promote standard language usage. Read on an example case below: Several? years? ago,? a? Massachusetts? teacher,? Gary? Simpkins,? attempted? to? move? his African-American students toward standard American English usage by developing? an? approach? called? â€Å"Bridge†? (Shells,? 1976).? He? used? transitional? strategies? whereby? the? students? learn? English? at rst? in? their? language-Black? English in reading, writing and oral communication. Midway through, he taught partly? Black? English? and? partly? standard? American? English.? By? the? end? of? the? instructional period, he taught all in standard American English but still aloud  student? to? use? Black-English? for? less? formal? communication. The implementation of approach above yielded â€Å"promising† results. 1. What is linguistic diversity? 2. Explain how teacher can help the students overcome language differences. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES l CHAPTER 7 180 7. 4 LEARNING STYLE OR COGNITIVE STYLE DIVERSITY 7. 4. 1 De? nition of Learning Style and Cognitive Style Kagan is one of the earliest psychologists who introduced the re? ective and impulsive cognitive style. Later, Witkin and Coodenough(1977) founded the concept of ? eld- independent and dependent cognitive style(Borich & Tombari, 1997). Another earliest psychologist, Massick proposed the concept of cognitive style. According to Massick: â€Å"Cognitive style is stable attitudes preferences or habitual strategies determining a person’s typical modes of perceiving, remembering, thinking and problem solving. † Messick (1976, p5) Later, there are various de? nitions for learning style or cognitive style by psychologists, depending on their views and perspectives as shown in Table 7. 2. Table 7. 2: Various de? nitions of Learning Style and Cognitive Style by psychologists. Tan et. al. (2003) Psychologist De? nition of Learning Style and Cognitive Style Henson and Eller (1999, p505). â€Å"Learning? styles? are? biological? and? socialized? di? erences? or? preferences for how students learn. Where as cognitive style is students’most comfortable, consistent, and expedient ways of perceiving? and? making? sense? of? information. † Tan et. al. (2003) ? â€Å"Learning? style? is? how? elements? from? basic? stimuli? in? the? current? and past environment a? ect an individual’s ability to absorb and retain information. † Henson and Eller (1999, p505) †¢? In? this? de? nition,? Tan? stressed? the? in? uence? of? biological? and? socialization? in? moulding? students’? learning? style. †¢? Henson? and? Eller? stress? on? basic? stimuli?that? a? ect? individual’s? learning style. 181i. CHAPTER 7 l INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 181 Woolfolk (2004, p603), Sternberg (1997) ? â€Å"Learning? preferences? is? preferred? ways? of? studying? or? learn- ing,? such? as? using? pictures? instead? of? text,? working? with? other? people versus alone, learning in structured or unstructured situation, and so on. Whereas a cognitive style is di? erent ways? of? perceiving? and? organizing? information. † Woolfolk ? â€Å"Learning? and? thinking? styles? are? not? abilities,? but? rather? preferred ways of using one’s abilities. † (Santrock, 2008, p132). †¢? Woolfolk? proposed? that? learning? styles?as? characteristic? approaches to learning and studying. †¢? She? also? equates? learning? styles? and? learning? preferences. †¢? According? to? Sternberg,? intelligence? refers? to? ability. †¢? Individual? vary? so? much? in? thinking? and? learning? style,? ? literally? hundreds? of? learning? and? thinking? styles? have? been? proposed by educators and psychologist. So from these de? nitions, we ? nd overlapping views on learning styles and cognitive styles. We can conclude that: Learning style and cognitive style cover many domains such as physical, psychological, audio, visual, kinaesthetic, etc. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES l CHAPTER 7. 182 7. 4. 2 Types of Learning Styles According to Butler, there are few types of learning styles(Butler, 1989 in Tan, 2003) such as explained below. (a) Psychological/Affective styles †¢ One of the instruments to assess individual’s learning style for this type of learning style is Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). †¢ This instrument will reveal how a student feel about him/herself and how self-esteem developed is linked to learning. (b) Physiological Styles †¢ There are few instruments in this category such as: – Honey and Munford Learning Styles Inventory, – Kolb Learning style inventory, – Modality Preferences Inventory, etc. †¢ These instruments show individual of her/his consistent ways to facilitate learning through the use of the senses or environmental stimuli. †¢ These instruments also show hemispheric specialisation (i. e. right or left brain), auditory, visual, kinaesthetic, olfactory preferences or preferences for environmental conditions. (c) Cognitive Styles †¢ Students may utilize cognitive styles such as ? eld-dependent or independent, impulsive or re? ective, whole or serial, etc. †¢ These instruments measure consistent ways of responding and using stimuli in the environment, how things are perceived and make sense, the most comfortable, expedientnand pleasurable way to process information. 7. 4. 3 Measurement of Learning Styles and Cognitive Styles Since students’ preferred styles of learning in? uence their achievements and teachers’ learning styles in? uence their instructional choices, it is suggested that teacher and students take the test we describe below. (a) Modality Preference Inventory Through this inventory, teacher and students can classify their learning styles such as auditory, visual or kinaesthetic. To assess an individual’s learning style, he/she has to respond to the questions shown in Figure 7. 4. 183i. CHAPTER 7 l INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 183 Learning Styles. Modality Preference Inventory Read each statement and select the appropriate number response as it applies to you. Often (3) Sometimes (2) Seldom/Never (1) Visual Modality †¢? I? remember? information? better? if? I? write? it? down. †¢? Looking? at? the? person? helps? keep? me? focused. †¢? I? need? a? quiet? space? to? get? my? work? done. †¢? When? I? take? a? test,? I? can? see? the? textbook? page? in? my? head. †¢? I? need? to? write? down? directions,? not? just? take? them? verbally. †¢? Music? or? background? noise? distracts? my? attention? from? the? task? at? hand. †¢? I? don’t? always? get? the? meaning? of? a? joke. †¢? I? doodle? and? draw? pictures? on? the? margins? of? my? notebook? pages. †¢? I? react? very? strongly? to? colors. †¢? Total Auditory Modality ? †¢? My? papers? and? notebooks? always? seem? messy. ? †¢? When? I? read,? I? need? to? use? my? index nger? to? track? my? place? on the line. ? †¢? I? do? not? follow? written? directions? well. ? †¢? If? I? hear? something,? I? will? remember? it. ? †¢? Writing? has? always? been? di? cult? for? me. ? †¢? I? often? misread? words? from? the? text? (eg,? them? for? then) ? †¢? I? would? rather? listen? and? learn? than? read? and? learn. ? †¢? I’m? not? very? good? at? interpreting? an?individual’s? body? language. ? †¢? Pages? with? small? print? or? poor? quality? copies? are? di? cult? for? me to read. ? †¢? My? eyes? tire? quickly,? even? though? my? vision? check-up? is? always ?ne. ? †¢? Total Kinesthetic Modality †¢? I? start? a? project? before? reading? the? directions. †¢? I? hate? to? sit? at? a? desk? for? long? periods? of? time. †¢? I? prefer? to? see? something? done? and? then? to? do? it? myself. †¢? I? use? the? trial? and? error? approach? to? problem-solving. †¢? I? like? to? read? my? textbook? while? riding? an? exercise? bike. †¢? I? take? frequent? study? breaks. †¢? I? have? di? culty? giving? step-by-step? instructions. †¢? I? enjoy? sports? and? do? well? at? several? di? erent? types? of? sports. †¢? I? use? my? hands? when? describing? things. †¢? I? have? to? rewrite? or? type? my? class? notes? to? reinforce? the? material. †¢? Total Total the score for each section. A score of 21 points or more in a modality indicates a strength in that area. The? highest? of? the? 3? scores? indicates? the? most? e? cient? method? of? information? intake.? The? second? highest? score indicates the modality which boosts the primary strength. Figure 7. 4:Example of questions should be responded by students to measure their learning styles. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES l CHAPTER 7 184 (b) Field-Dependent and Independent Teacher or student may utilize Field-Dependent or Independent Cognitive Style in percep- tion or information processing. Field-Independent learners perceive items as more or less separate from the surrounding ? eld. They are interested in concept for their own sake. They have self-de? ned goals and function successfully in self-structured situations and impersonal learning environments. For ? eld-dependent learners, their mode of learning is strongly in? uenced by the prevailing context or setting. They are more aware of their surroundings as they learn. These learners value practical information. They can memorize human faces and social facts such as best friend’s birth date more easily than ? eld- independent learners. Garger and Guild(1987) have summarized the characteristics of ? eld-independent and ?eld-dependent learners. These are illustrated in Table 7. 3. From this table it is clear that, at least in the extremes, the two styles are very different. Table 7. 3 Characteristics of Field-Dependent and Independent learners. Perceives globally. Perceives analytically. FIELD-DEPENDENT FIELD-INDEPENDENT Makes broad general distinctions among concepts, sees relationships. Learns material with social content best. Requires externally de? ned goals and reinforcements. Makes speci? c concept distinctions, little overlap. Learns social material only as an intentional task. Has self-de? ned goals and reinforcements. Experiences in a global fashion, adheres to structures as given. Social orientation. Attends best to material relevant to own experience. Needs organization provided. Experiences in an articulate fashion, imposes structures of restrictions. Impersonal orientation. Interested in new concepts for their own sake. Can self-structure situations. Learning Styles- Dependence and Independence Descriptions. 185i. CHAPTER 7 l INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 185 More a? ected by criticism. Less a? ected by criticism. Uses spectator approach for concept attainment. Uses hypothesis-testing approach to attain concepts. Teacher and students can assess their cognitive style using Embedded Figures Test (EFT) or Group Embedded Figures Test(GEFT). In this test, they have to recognize geometry ?gure, which are embedded in the picture or in the background. Those who can recognize the ? gure faster than the others are learners with the ? eld-independent style and those who take longer than a few seconds or cannot ? nd the ? gure at all, can be classi? ed as ? eld- dependent learners. Figure 7. 5 illustrates an example of Embedded Figures Test (EFT). Recognize? the? geometry gure,? which? are? embedded? in? the? designs? picture.? INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES l CHAPTER 7 186 Answer: Figure 7. 5: An example of Embedded Figure Test (EFT) If you are a ? eld-independent teacher, you may be comfortable giving lectures and empha- sizing cognition. You may prefer offering corrective feedback, using negative feedback as warranted, and you may use grades and personal goal charts motivationally. If you are a ? eld-dependent teacher, you may prefer interaction and conversation with your  students. You may rely less on corrective feedback and little on negative evaluations. You also like to establish a warm and personal environment and prefer to motivate through external reward such as verbal praise. Many educational psychologist views that if the teacher cognitive style match with the student cognitive style, students? will? bene? t? most? and? vice? versa.? Student? learn? best when there is congruence between their preferred teaching style. Unfortunately, most teachers ignore student’s? cognitive? style? because? it? takes? longer? time? for? them to prepare lesson plan and devices or activities to  ful? l their needs. 1. What is cognitive style and learning style? 2. Give a few examples of learning or cognitive styles. 187i. CHAPTER 7 l INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 187 7. 5 GENDER DIFFERENCES Linguistic diversity is one of the elements that contributes to student’s diversity. Your class will have language diversity, and you will have to realize that you need to be sensitive to this linguistic diversity and adjust accordingly. In Malaysia, we are lucky because the medium of instruction is in Malay or Bahasa Melayu for all subjects except for English. Furthermore, English is regarded as the second language  and all students must pass the subject at the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysialevel or the form 5 national exam. It moulds young generations of Malaysia to at least mastering three languages, namely Bahasa Melayu, the English language, and their mother tongue. With this capacity, it enhances the Malaysians to understand each other and to live harmoniously. Tan (2003) suggested two ways to teachers in addressing language diversity as shown in Figure 7. 3, which are Facilitating English, and Immersion and Transitional Methods. In Asian society, being a girl or a boy has signi? cant impact. The people usually adore boys than girls. It’s because most Asian country are rice bowl or dependent on agriculture where the man are more utilizable in manual jobs than ladies. But they forget, in terms of resilience and patience, the women are the winners! Now, let us examine gender-related student differences in several ways and explore their implications for teaching. Are you resent being a girl? You don’t have to. Accept things as it is. (a) Developmental rates According? to? Egan? and? Kauchak: â€Å"Di? erences exist in boys’ and girls’ developmental rates. Girls develop faster with? di? erences? in? verbal? and? motor? skills? appearing? at? an? early? age.? Boys?and? girls? are? di? erent in other areas as well, and these di? erences appear as early as the preschool years. Girls tend to play with dolls and other girls and to gravitate toward activities such as? make-believe? and? dress-up.? Boys? play? with? blocks,? cars,? dinosaurs,? and? other? boys. † (Egan and Kauchak, 1997). INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES l CHAPTER 7 188 We? can? observe? society? and? family,? school? and? work? place? treat? girls and boys di? erently. In the family, they are treated di? erently from the day they were born. †¢? Baby? girls? are? given? pink? blankets,? are? called? cute? and? handled? delicately. †¢? Baby? boys? are? dressed? in? blue,? are? regarded? as? handsome,? and are seen as tougher, better coordinated, and hardier. Di? erences in treatment continue in later years. In high school, girls? become? cheerleaders? for? the? boys,? who? become? basketball? or? football players. (b) Family treatment (c) Expectation for school success (d) Academic area These di? erences also include expectation for school success. Parents? probably? communicate? di? erent? expectations? for? their? sons and daughters. Researchers have found that: Research on gender e? ects founded di? erences in boys and girls in di? erent academic areas. According? to? Maccoby? and? Jacklin, â€Å"Parents’? gender-stereotyped? attitudes? toward? girls’? ability? in? math,? adversely? in? uence? their? daughters’? achievement? in? math? and their attitudes toward it. † (Nagy-Jacklin, 1989 in Egan & Kauchak, 1997) â€Å"Boys? did? better? in? math? and? on? visual? and? spatial? tasks,? example? tasks? in? geometry.? Girls? did? better? in? on? verbal? skills? such? as? in? languages. † (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974) 189i. CHAPTER 7 l INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 189 Boys? and? girls? also? received? di? erent? treatment? in? school.? Both? male? and? female? teacher? treat? boys? and? girls? di?erently. They? interact? with? the? boys? more? often? and? ask? them? more? questions,? and? those? questions? are? more? conceptual? and abstract. (e) Treatment in school Gender stereotyping also in? uences career decisions. According to Kochenberger-Stroeher: Signi? cantly, when children choose non-traditional roles for males or females, their choices are based on personal experience. â€Å"Di? erences in students’ view of gender-appropriate careers appear as early as kindergarten. † (Kochenberger-Stroeher, 1994) ? â€Å"One? of? the? most? powerful? factors? in? uencing? school? performance? is? socio-economic? status? (SES),?the? combination? of? parents’? income,? occupations,? and? level? of? education.? SES? consistently? predicts? intelligence? and? achievement? test? scores,? grades,? truancy? and dropout and suspension rates. † (Ballantine, 1989 in Egan & Kauchak, 1997) 1. Why teacher treat boys and girls differently? 2. Give few examples of different treatment to boys and girls. 3. Think of ways in which teacher can accommodate to gender differences. 7. 6 DIFFERENCES IN SOCIO? ECONOMIC STATUS According to Ballantine; INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES l CHAPTER 7 190 Many? families? lack? in? proper? nourishment,? and? adequate? medical? care.? Poverty? also? in? uences? the? quality? of? home-life,? unstable? work? conditions? increased? economic? problems? that? lead to parental frustration, anger and depression. These pressures? can? lead? to? family? scattered,? marital? con? ict? and? nurturing homes. The impact of SES is also transmitted through parental attitudes and values where their attitudes and values are different. Example is in interaction pattern. †¢ Low SES parents are more likely to â€Å"tell,† rather than explain. †¢ High SES parents, in contrast, talk more with their children, explain ideas and the cause of events, and encourage independent thinking. Walbergs observed that: â€Å"High SES parents are more likely to ask â€Å"wh† questions (who, when, where, why) promoting language development, provide strong foundation for reading and vocabulary development. † (Walberg, 1991) 191i. CHAPTER 7 l INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 191 The educational aspirations parents have for their children are probably the most powerful variables a? ecting achievement.? Parents? who? expect? their? children? to? graduate? from high school and to attend college have children who do well than parents who have low aspirations. These expecta- tions are communicated through dialogue betweenparents and children.? Low? SES? parents? in? contrast,? allow? their? children? to? â€Å"drift† into classes and often got loss in the shu? e and failed in their lives. The differences between low and high SES families also re? ect the emphasis placed on student’s autonomy and responsibility. High-SES parents emphasize self-direction, self- control, and individual responsibility while low-SES parents, in contrast, place greater emphasis on conformity and obedience. 1. What is meant by parents’ SES differences? 2. Give few examples impact of SES on student’s aspirations, attitudes and values. 3. Think of ways in which teacher can accommodate to SES bdifferences. 7. 7 WAYS IN EMBRACING DIVERSITIES To be a good teacher, you should know the ways to embracing diversities among your students. Below are the discussions on how to handle your student’s diversities in the gender differences, cultural, race and ethnicity, learning style, socio–economy and linguistic differences. (a) Gender differences It is not easy to eliminate gender differences in the class, but to make teacher cautious and not gender bias, Figure 7. 6 shows some recommendations warrant that need to be considered. Avoid stereotypical language. (Example: â€Å"Okay, guys lets get work†) Provide equal opportunities for males and females. (Example: club membership). INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES l CHAPTER 7 192 In eliminating race and ethnicity, we move toward moulding one Malaysian nation with the same identity and characteristics such as same language and same spirit. One of the ways to unite Malaysians is through education system where all races study in the same school, same college and same university. All Malay- sian? know? and? appreciate? the? same? food? like? nasi lemak, roti canai, the tarik, tosay,mee teow, mee suah and etc. In coping with students with learning styles diversity, teacher  may use multi-approach in instruction such as cooperative learning which is suitable for ? eld-dependent students and doing experiment and also suitable for ? Eld-independent students. During instruction, teacher may use diagram and charts which is suitable for visual learner, using records and video tapes? which? is? suitable? for? auditory? learners? and? utilize? hands-on experience such as experimenting for tactile learners. Reduce or oust gender-typed activities. (Example: Girls have to cook, boys wash the car). Figure 7. 6: Some recommendations warrant that need to be consider to eliminate gender  differences in the class. (b) Cultural diversity In eliminating cultural diversity, teacher may utilize assimilation, amalgamation or cultural pluralism approach. In Malaysia we are encouraged to utilize cultural pluralism approach. (c) Race and ethnicity (d) Learning styles diversity 193i. CHAPTER 7 l INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 193 Teacher have to help students from poor family to excel by motivating them to learn, give extra-class to help them catch up? with? the? other? students,? maybe? organizing? charity? work? to? earn? money? that? can? be? donated? to? the? poor? students.? Later,? teacher? can? also?